You may want to refer to the post "Common Poetic Techniques and Terms."
Scansion
Line 1: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 2: u u / u u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 4 stresses
Line 3: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 4: u / u / u / u / u / (enjambment) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 5: / / u / u / u / u / (enjambment) = 10 syllables with 6 stresses
Line 6: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 7: u / u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 8: u / u / / u u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 9: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 10: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 11: u / u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 12: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 13: u / u / u / u / u / (enjambment) = 10 syllables with 5
stresses
Line 14: u / u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 15: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 16: u / u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 17: / u / / u / u u u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Line 18: / / u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 6 stresses
Line 19: / u u / u / u / u / (end-stop) = 10 syllables with 5 stresses
Prevailing meter: iambic pentameter
Primary variation on dominant foot: trochee
Form: villanelle
Rhyme scheme: a1ba2 // aba1 // aba2 // aba1 // aba2 // aba1a2
Poetic Techniques
Line 1: "way" and "play" = internal rhyme
"little" = meiosis
"game" = metaphor = life
Line 2: metaphor = hide-and-seek
Line 3: "will" = pun = "desire" or "try to do"
"the same" = meiosis = metaphor = in death
Line 4: "classical physique" = allusion to Greek art = metaphor =
statuesque
Line 5: "courting" = pun = "seek affections of" (the personification
of "lust" and "envy") or "to seek to achieve"
Line 6: refrain
Line 7: "fragile" and "fame" = alliteration
"fame" = metaphor = an object
Line 8: "drop out" = meiosis = die
Line 9: "what" and "will" = alliteration
refrain
Line 10: "world" = synecdoche = humanity
"world to shame" = adynation
Line 11: "Rejoicing" = irony
"flesh" = synecdoche = person
"flesh is mortified" = personification = flesh experiences
shame
Line 12: refrain
Line 13: "contrition," "meant," "tame" = consonance
"tame" = pun = "to bring under control" or "to reduce
from a wild state" (Fear is a primitive emotion.)
Line 14: "caught" = irony = God is omniscient.
"caught and tried" = metaphor = the day of judgment
Line 15: refrain
Line 16: extension of metaphor "game" in lines one, six and twelve
metaphor = nature
Line 17: "universally denied" = irony
Line 18: refrain
Line 19: refrain
Summary and Interpretation
Anthony Hecht's Flight Among the Tombs: Poems (1996) is reminiscent of William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1794). Blake's collection contains illuminative relief etches that have either a polyphonic, often ironic, or a symphonic relationship with the text. Leonard Baskin's woodcuts of the Grim Reaper personify death as a skeleton in a cloak. The Grim Reaper is the speaker in "All Out." In the woodcut that precedes the poem, he is without his distinctive scythe, which the text supersedes. "All Out" is both a satire--Death ridicules human tendencies with regard to vanity, lust, envy, fame, pride, shame and fear--and a contrapuntal response to Blake's idyllic world.
Similar to the poems in Songs, "All Out" is singsongy, attributable to the refrains and to its primarily masculine, regular rhyme. The first and third lines of the first stanza appear four times throughout the poem; the speech sound am (long a) is repeated thirteen times, and the speech sound id (long i) is repeated six times; the five tercets have an aba rhyme scheme, and the quatrain has an abaa rhyme scheme. The poem's lyricism also is attributable to its recurrent meter (pentameter) and predominant foot (iamb). But Hecht varies the rhythm for effect. For example, "While I count up to ten, the others hide," (2) consists of two anapests and two iambs. The anapaests precede the iambs; hence, Death quickly counts while the players slowly hide. The trochee "claiming" (8) is between four iambs, suggesting it may be a faithless declaration. "Of penance and contrition" (13) consists of three successive unstressed syllables, which reflect the quiet atmosphere of churches. Finally, the spondee "This is" (18) aggressively reinforces Death's assertion.
Whereas most lyric poems thematically focus on loss, the formal properties of Hecht's villanelle address the idea of loss directly. The refrains, rhymes, recurrent meter, and predominant foot create a circular argument befitting the theme: it is inevitable we will die. Our inability to progress beyond the limitations established by Death is underscored with numerous caesuras (eleven) and end-stops (sixteen).
Although the topic is serious, the poem's tone is comic, achieved through such techniques as meiosis, pun and irony. Meiosis--"little" (1)--deliberately represents something--life--as less important than it actually is. Death's play on words sustains the poem's complexity. For example, according to Death those who are vain seek the affections of lustful and envious people; furthermore, vanity is a manifestation of lust and envy. Ironic statements such as "Rejoicing when their flesh is mortified" (11) and the universal denial of death also have a comic effect.
In contrast to Blake's appealingly childlike Songs, "All Out" offers a bleak view of human experience. Hecht ensnares his readers with numerous poetic techniques. Death is ultimately victorious both psychologically and physically. His hold is ritualistic, associated with the very form of the poem. Our fall from grace is a descent into time, mortality. Because we cannot escape, we should sing as often as we can.
Showing posts with label close reading. Show all posts
Showing posts with label close reading. Show all posts
Thursday, January 10, 2013
Sunday, June 19, 2011
Business Letters
When you write letters to people outside your organization, you will need to choose among three formats--block, modified block, and simplified--unless your organization has a standard format. The following table reveals some of the differences among the three formats.
Block Modified Block Simplified
Spacing after letterhead 2 to 6 spaces 2 to 6 spaces 2 to 4 spaces
Date and signature Left margin 1/2" to 2/3" from Left margin
left margin
Salutation and close Yes Yes No
Subject line Optional No Yes
Paragraphic indentations No Optional No
Paragraphic spacing Single space Single space Single space
between between between
Lists Indent Indent Left margin
Your company may require you to use letterhead, stationary imprinted with the organization's name, logo, and contactual information. If a letter is longer than one page, use letterhead only for the first page. Use a heading--reader's name, the date, and page number--on each page after the first.
If the letterhead extends all the way across the top of the page, set your margins even with the ends of the letterhead. Otherwise, your left margin should be from 1 inch to 1-1/2 inches wide, and your right margin should be from 5/8 of an inch to 1 inch wide.
Some companies use envelopes with windows so that the inside address (the reader's name and address) on the letter is visible for delivery. If your organization uses such, adjust your margins so that the entire inside address is visible.
Use the same level of formality in the salutation, or greeting, as you would when speaking to somebody via phone: Dear John if you know the reader well and Dear Mr. Smith if you do not know the reader well enough to use his/her first name. If you do not know the reader's name, omit the salutation. However, readers like to see their names. Writers who use the simplified format, which omits the reader's name in the salutation, frequently use the reader's name in the first paragraph.
With mixed punctuation, which is traditional, a colon follows the salutation, and a comma follows the close. With open punctuation, which is becoming standard in electronic mail, omit all punctuation after the salutation and the close. Sincerely and Yours truly are standard complimentary closes. An informal close--Cordially, Thank you, Ciao--is acceptable when you are writing to a friend, to a business acquaintance, or to people in special groups.
Subject lines are optional in letters. If you create one, ensure it is specific, concise and relative. A good subject line will reveal the essence of the letter, will be short, and will correlate to the purpose and content of the letter. If you do not want to include a subject line, create a reference line that refers either to the number--an account, for example--in previous correspondence or to the number--an order or invoice--on which the letter focuses. (For more information on subject lines, please refer to the post "Electronic Mail.")
With respect to the body of a positive or neutral letter, in the first paragraph state any good news and summarize the primary points. Include the date a policy begins, the percent of a discount, et cetera. If the message is a response to an issue, reveal that it is such.
Next, provide details. Do not repeat information that you have stated; rather, answer any questions the reader is likely to have. Present details in the order of importance to the reader. If there is any negative information, present it as positively as possible. A policy may have limits; information may be incomplete; the reader may need to satisfy requirements. Clarify such negatives, presenting them as positively as possible.
Letters to customers or potential customers sometimes include a sales paragraph promoting products or services the organization offers in addition to the product or service about which the reader asked. Such promotions should be soft, not aggressive.
Not all letters require reader benefits. Include reader benefits when you are presenting policies, when you want to shape the reader's attitude, or when the benefits may not be obvious to the reader. When you present reader benefits, clearly state the advantages to the reader. (For more information on reader benefits, please refer to the post "Reader Benefits.")
Tactfully concluding a letter can be problematic if it is short. You can tell your reader what specific action you want him/her to take; you can compliment the reader for an action he/she took; you can describe a reader benefit; you can look forward to something positive that relates to the subject of the letter. If you have omitted backing (grounds in detail), you can state where your reader can find more information. If you have provided all the information your reader requires, you can write a goodwill ending that refers directly to the reader or to the reader's organization.
A goodwill ending should focus on the professional, not personal, relationship you have with the reader. An effective ending specifically refers to the reader to the extent it would not correlate to someone else or to another person with the same title in another organization. If you are writing to an individual in another organization, the ultimate paragraph can refer to your organization's relationship with the reader's organization. When you are writing to a group, your ending should apply to the entire group.
With respect to a negative letter, tone (the implied attitude of the author toward the subject and the reader) is especially important. Carefully edit your letter for positive emphasis and you-attitude. The timing of a letter can convey tone. An immediate response will suggest that the rejection did not receive much consideration; a negative letter immediately before a holiday will seem harsh. When you need to relate negative information, consider recasting it as a positive or neutral message. For example, if your organization has a problem, ask the reader(s) to help solve it. If the negative information will lead directly to a reader benefit, organize the information as you would in a positive or neutral message. When there is a reason a reader will understand or accept, state the reason before the refusal. A strong reason will prepare the reader to expect the refusal. State the refusal or negative information only once and as clearly as possible. The reader may miss an inconspicuous refusal, making it necessary for you to say no a second time. Present an alternative if there is one. An alternative not only will provide the reader another way to get what he/she wants, but it also will suggest you care about him/her, via helping the reader meet his/her needs. Close with a positive, forward-looking statement.
A document that accompanies a letter is an enclosure. Whatever it may be--a note, a report--ensure that you refer to it in the body of the letter. The enclosure line, which is after the writer's typed name, reminds the person who seals the letter to include the enclosure. Use the abbreviation Encl. before the description or title of the document(s).
If you are sending copies of your letter to other people and you want to signal such to the primary reader, list their names after your typed name. The abbreviation cc means computer copy, and the abbreviation c means copy. If you are sending copies of your letter to other people and you do not want to signal such to the primary reader, do not list their names. Such copies are blind copies. List the names of the other people, with the abbreviation bc preceding the names, only on the copy you will file.
Block Modified Block Simplified
Spacing after letterhead 2 to 6 spaces 2 to 6 spaces 2 to 4 spaces
Date and signature Left margin 1/2" to 2/3" from Left margin
left margin
Salutation and close Yes Yes No
Subject line Optional No Yes
Paragraphic indentations No Optional No
Paragraphic spacing Single space Single space Single space
between between between
Lists Indent Indent Left margin
Your company may require you to use letterhead, stationary imprinted with the organization's name, logo, and contactual information. If a letter is longer than one page, use letterhead only for the first page. Use a heading--reader's name, the date, and page number--on each page after the first.
If the letterhead extends all the way across the top of the page, set your margins even with the ends of the letterhead. Otherwise, your left margin should be from 1 inch to 1-1/2 inches wide, and your right margin should be from 5/8 of an inch to 1 inch wide.
Some companies use envelopes with windows so that the inside address (the reader's name and address) on the letter is visible for delivery. If your organization uses such, adjust your margins so that the entire inside address is visible.
Use the same level of formality in the salutation, or greeting, as you would when speaking to somebody via phone: Dear John if you know the reader well and Dear Mr. Smith if you do not know the reader well enough to use his/her first name. If you do not know the reader's name, omit the salutation. However, readers like to see their names. Writers who use the simplified format, which omits the reader's name in the salutation, frequently use the reader's name in the first paragraph.
With mixed punctuation, which is traditional, a colon follows the salutation, and a comma follows the close. With open punctuation, which is becoming standard in electronic mail, omit all punctuation after the salutation and the close. Sincerely and Yours truly are standard complimentary closes. An informal close--Cordially, Thank you, Ciao--is acceptable when you are writing to a friend, to a business acquaintance, or to people in special groups.
Subject lines are optional in letters. If you create one, ensure it is specific, concise and relative. A good subject line will reveal the essence of the letter, will be short, and will correlate to the purpose and content of the letter. If you do not want to include a subject line, create a reference line that refers either to the number--an account, for example--in previous correspondence or to the number--an order or invoice--on which the letter focuses. (For more information on subject lines, please refer to the post "Electronic Mail.")
With respect to the body of a positive or neutral letter, in the first paragraph state any good news and summarize the primary points. Include the date a policy begins, the percent of a discount, et cetera. If the message is a response to an issue, reveal that it is such.
Next, provide details. Do not repeat information that you have stated; rather, answer any questions the reader is likely to have. Present details in the order of importance to the reader. If there is any negative information, present it as positively as possible. A policy may have limits; information may be incomplete; the reader may need to satisfy requirements. Clarify such negatives, presenting them as positively as possible.
Letters to customers or potential customers sometimes include a sales paragraph promoting products or services the organization offers in addition to the product or service about which the reader asked. Such promotions should be soft, not aggressive.
Not all letters require reader benefits. Include reader benefits when you are presenting policies, when you want to shape the reader's attitude, or when the benefits may not be obvious to the reader. When you present reader benefits, clearly state the advantages to the reader. (For more information on reader benefits, please refer to the post "Reader Benefits.")
Tactfully concluding a letter can be problematic if it is short. You can tell your reader what specific action you want him/her to take; you can compliment the reader for an action he/she took; you can describe a reader benefit; you can look forward to something positive that relates to the subject of the letter. If you have omitted backing (grounds in detail), you can state where your reader can find more information. If you have provided all the information your reader requires, you can write a goodwill ending that refers directly to the reader or to the reader's organization.
A goodwill ending should focus on the professional, not personal, relationship you have with the reader. An effective ending specifically refers to the reader to the extent it would not correlate to someone else or to another person with the same title in another organization. If you are writing to an individual in another organization, the ultimate paragraph can refer to your organization's relationship with the reader's organization. When you are writing to a group, your ending should apply to the entire group.
With respect to a negative letter, tone (the implied attitude of the author toward the subject and the reader) is especially important. Carefully edit your letter for positive emphasis and you-attitude. The timing of a letter can convey tone. An immediate response will suggest that the rejection did not receive much consideration; a negative letter immediately before a holiday will seem harsh. When you need to relate negative information, consider recasting it as a positive or neutral message. For example, if your organization has a problem, ask the reader(s) to help solve it. If the negative information will lead directly to a reader benefit, organize the information as you would in a positive or neutral message. When there is a reason a reader will understand or accept, state the reason before the refusal. A strong reason will prepare the reader to expect the refusal. State the refusal or negative information only once and as clearly as possible. The reader may miss an inconspicuous refusal, making it necessary for you to say no a second time. Present an alternative if there is one. An alternative not only will provide the reader another way to get what he/she wants, but it also will suggest you care about him/her, via helping the reader meet his/her needs. Close with a positive, forward-looking statement.
A document that accompanies a letter is an enclosure. Whatever it may be--a note, a report--ensure that you refer to it in the body of the letter. The enclosure line, which is after the writer's typed name, reminds the person who seals the letter to include the enclosure. Use the abbreviation Encl. before the description or title of the document(s).
If you are sending copies of your letter to other people and you want to signal such to the primary reader, list their names after your typed name. The abbreviation cc means computer copy, and the abbreviation c means copy. If you are sending copies of your letter to other people and you do not want to signal such to the primary reader, do not list their names. Such copies are blind copies. List the names of the other people, with the abbreviation bc preceding the names, only on the copy you will file.
Thursday, August 19, 2010
Fiction Worksheet
I often have used the following worksheet as an in-class, collective and/or individual activity. Students not only learn how to read literature closely, they also generate information for discussions and essays.
Realize that you will need to read the story more than once. Do not try to interpret the story during the initial reading. Enjoy the experience, listening to the language. After you have read the story a second time, complete the following.
1. Identify the protagonist, and briefly describe him/her/it.
2. Is there an antagonist? If so, briefly describe him/her/it.
3. Are there any flat or stock characters? If so, list them.
4. Do any characters speak in dialect? What are the structures of
their patterns of speech (simple, complex)?
5. Do any of the characters change? Why do they change? Do
any of the characters remain the same?
6. Is the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist,
between the protagonist and his/her/its fate, between the
protagonist's circumstances and his/her/its goal(s), or between
the oppositional desires and values of the protagonist?
7. What are the general locale, historical time, and social
circumstances of the story?
8. Is there a shift in the setting, and is it significant?
9. Identify the rising action (conflict), highest point of tension
(climax), and falling action (reversal or turning point).
Remember, some short stories begin at the point of the
climax--in media res, "in the middle of things."
10. Is the point of view first person ( a participant using I) or third
person (an outsider using he, she, it, they)? Is the first-person
narrator a major or minor character, and is he/she/it reliable or
unreliable? Is the third-person narrator omniscient (knows the
thoughts and feelings of all the characters), limited (knows the
thoughts and feelings of one or two characters), or objective
(knows only what is external to the characters)?
11. List some of the details in the story. Which senses do they
involve? What is the significance of each image?
12. Identify the tropes you think are significant. Interpret them.
13. Identify the instances of sonic texture you think are significant.
Why do you think such?
14. Theme is neither plot (what occurs) nor subject (such as
happiness or mourning). Rather, it is what the author implies
with the plot about the subject. In other words, plot is a
conception of human experience that a work as a whole
suggests. For example, the theme of Ernest Hemingway's "Hills
Like White Elephants" is that abortion is a complex affair.
What is the theme of the work?
15. Freely answer the following questions, focusing, first, on the
story as a whole and, second, on particular sentences and
paragraphs.
a. Do you like or dislike the story and why?
b. Is the story interesting or uninteresting, and which sentences
or paragraphs do you think are such?
c. Consider all the aforementioned elements. Which critical
approach(es) will help you best analyze and critique the
short story? Remember: do not try to determine the correct
reading. You want to produce an interpretation that you feel
is accurate because you support it with details from the story.
Realize that you will need to read the story more than once. Do not try to interpret the story during the initial reading. Enjoy the experience, listening to the language. After you have read the story a second time, complete the following.
1. Identify the protagonist, and briefly describe him/her/it.
2. Is there an antagonist? If so, briefly describe him/her/it.
3. Are there any flat or stock characters? If so, list them.
4. Do any characters speak in dialect? What are the structures of
their patterns of speech (simple, complex)?
5. Do any of the characters change? Why do they change? Do
any of the characters remain the same?
6. Is the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist,
between the protagonist and his/her/its fate, between the
protagonist's circumstances and his/her/its goal(s), or between
the oppositional desires and values of the protagonist?
7. What are the general locale, historical time, and social
circumstances of the story?
8. Is there a shift in the setting, and is it significant?
9. Identify the rising action (conflict), highest point of tension
(climax), and falling action (reversal or turning point).
Remember, some short stories begin at the point of the
climax--in media res, "in the middle of things."
10. Is the point of view first person ( a participant using I) or third
person (an outsider using he, she, it, they)? Is the first-person
narrator a major or minor character, and is he/she/it reliable or
unreliable? Is the third-person narrator omniscient (knows the
thoughts and feelings of all the characters), limited (knows the
thoughts and feelings of one or two characters), or objective
(knows only what is external to the characters)?
11. List some of the details in the story. Which senses do they
involve? What is the significance of each image?
12. Identify the tropes you think are significant. Interpret them.
13. Identify the instances of sonic texture you think are significant.
Why do you think such?
14. Theme is neither plot (what occurs) nor subject (such as
happiness or mourning). Rather, it is what the author implies
with the plot about the subject. In other words, plot is a
conception of human experience that a work as a whole
suggests. For example, the theme of Ernest Hemingway's "Hills
Like White Elephants"
is that abortion is a complex affair.What is the theme of the work?
15. Freely answer the following questions, focusing, first, on the
story as a whole and, second, on particular sentences and
paragraphs.
a. Do you like or dislike the story and why?
b. Is the story interesting or uninteresting, and which sentences
or paragraphs do you think are such?
c. Consider all the aforementioned elements. Which critical
approach(es) will help you best analyze and critique the
short story? Remember: do not try to determine the correct
reading. You want to produce an interpretation that you feel
is accurate because you support it with details from the story.
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