A graphic representation of Stephen Toulmin's scheme for argumentation follows.
Qualifiers Reasons
\ /
Claims Grounds
/ \ / \
Rebuttals \ / Evidence
\ /
Warrants
/
Backing
An example of an academic argument follows. We must not choose Stephen as our chairperson (a claim) because he is too bossy (a reason). His subordinates say such (evidence). Bossy people are bad committee chairs (a warrant). A study conducted in 2006 by psychologists from the University of South Carolina concludes that bossy people tend to bring out the worst, rather than the best, in those around them; that bossy people tend not to ask for advice; and that bossy people make bad decisions (backing, if provide documentation). Although Stephen is bossy, he has been kind to those on the committee (a rebuttal). Stephen may be kind to us, but some psychologists consider bossiness a sign of insecurity, which is a trait committee chairs should not have. Thus, we must not choose Stephen as our chairperson because, in most cases, bossy people are bad committee chairs (a qualifier). (Please refer to "The Components of an Academic Argument.")
Below are the five categories of arguments.
An example of a definitional claim (a question of definition) follows. Pluto is a planet and not an asteroid. (Is Pluto a planet or an asteroid?) To construct a definitional argument, you must define the second term--in this case planet and asteroid--and argue whether the first term--Pluto--meets or does not meet the definition(s).
An example of a categorical claim (a question of fact) follows. Constantly surfing the Internet is a new form of addiction. (Is constantly surfing the Internet a new form of addiction?) What makes it categorical, not definitional? The writer or speaker and his/her audience agree on the meaning of addiction.
An example of an evaluative claim (a question of evaluation) follows. Acquiring a job between college and graduate school is a good career plan. (Is acquiring a job between college and graduate school a good career plan?) To construct an evaluative argument, you must establish your criteria for good, or bad, and explain the ways your first term meets, or does not meet, the criteria.
An example of a causal claim (a question of cause and effect) follows. Legislative control of guns will reduce violent crimes. (Will legislative control of guns reduce violent crimes?) To construct a cause and consequence argument, you must describe the chain of events that lead from X to Y, from legislative control to a reduction in violent crimes. If you cannot directly establish a causal chain, then argue indirectly, using inductive logic, statistical analyses, and/or analogies.
An example of a proposal (a question of policy) follows. Homosexual marriage must be made legal. (Must homosexual marriage be legal?) To construct a proposal, you must convince the audience that a problem exists. Second, you must propose a solution. Third, you must justify the solution by demonstrating that the benefits outweigh the costs or that the rightness of the solution, on moral grounds, compels action.
